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Environ Microbiol 2000 Oct;66(10):4383-8 Related Articles, Books, LinkOut
Concentration
and detection of caliciviruses in water samples by reverse transcription-PCR.
Huang
PW, Laborde D, Land VR, Matson DO, Smith AW, Jiang X.
Center
for Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of The King's Daughters
and Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk,
Virginia 23510-1001, USA.
Human
caliciviruses (HuCVs) cause waterborne outbreaks of gastroenteritis. Standard
indicators of a safe water supply do not adequately predict contamination of
water by viruses, including HuCVs. We developed a method to concentrate and
detect HuCVs in water samples by using a cultivable primate calicivirus (Pan-1)
as a model. Viable Pan-1 was seeded in different types of water and then
filtered with a 1MDS filter, eluted with beef extract (BE), and reconcentrated
by polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation. The viruses in the final samples
were tested by plaque assay or by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR following
extraction of the RNA with Trizol. Pan-1 was more sensitive to high-pH
treatment than poliovirus was; a pH 9.0 BE solution was found to recover 35%
more viable Pan-1 than a pH 9.5 BE solution recovered. Pan-1 was recovered from
small volumes of deionized, finished, ground, and surface waters at
efficiencies of 94, 73, 67, and 64%, respectively, when samples were assayed
after elution without further concentration. When larger volumes of water (up
to 40 liters) were tested after elution and concentration with PEG, 38, 19, and
14% of the seeded Pan-1 were recovered from finished, ground, and surface
waters, respectively. The limit of detection of Pan-1 by RT-PCR was estimated
to be 0.75 to 1.5 PFU in 40 liters of finished water. This method may be
adapted for monitoring HuCVs in drinking water and other types of water for
public health safety.
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The
primate calicivirus, Pan-1, was originally isolated from several primate species.
It displayed typical calicivirus morphology by electron microscopy. We
determined the genomic sequence of Pan-1 by cDNA cloning and direct RNA
sequencing. Pan-1 shares a similar genomic organization and a high degree of
sequence identity with feline caliciviruses. The Pan-1 genome contains 8,304
nucleotides, plus a poly-A tail, and is longer than any other calicivirus
strains with a completely known sequence. The extra sequences of Pan-1 include
a unique 424-nucleotide sequence at the 5' end of ORF1, additional amino acids
at the N-terminus of the capsid, and a longer 3' UTR.
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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9930197&dopt=Abstract
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J
Wildl Dis 1998 Jul;34(3):451-6
Isolation
of reptilian calicivirus Crotalus type 1 from feral pinnipeds.
Barlough
JE, Matson DO, Skilling DE, Berke T, Berry ES, Brown RF, Smith AW.
Laboratory
for Calicivirus Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State
University,
Corvallis
97331, USA.
Ten
virus isolates were obtained from three species of marine mammals sampled on
San Miguel Island (California, USA) and 1,200 km north on Rogue Reef (Oregon,
USA) during tagging operations in 1986-87. Seven of these 10 were derived from
30 sampled Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus pups, while two of 10 were
isolated from one of 19 sampled California sea lion (Zalophus californianus
californianus pups, and the remaining isolate was derived from 30 sampled
northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) pups. All 10 isolates were identified
as belonging to a single serotype, reptilian calicivirus Crotalus type 1 (RCV
Cro-1), previously isolated from both healthy and diseased snakes and frogs in
a California zoologic collection. The marine samples also showed that nine of
30 Steller sea lion pups, one of 19 California sea lion pups and zero of 30 fur
seal pups were producing type specific neutralizing antibodies to RCV Cro-1. This
represents the first reported instance of the isolation from marine sources of
calicivirus originally isolated from a terrestrial species.
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Clin
Infect Dis 1998 Feb;26(2):434-9
In
vitro isolation and characterization of a calicivirus causing a vesicular
disease of the hands and feet.
Smith
AW, Berry ES, Skilling DE, Barlough JE, Poet SE, Berke T, Mead J, Matson DO.
College
of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory for Calicivirus Studies, Oregon State
University, Corvallis 97331, USA.
We
report that a calicivirus of oceanic origin, San Miguel sea lion virus serotype
5 (SMSV-5), is a human pathogen. This biotype was isolated originally from
blisters on the flippers of northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) and
replicates readily in primate and human cell lines. It infects a
phylogenetically diverse array of hosts (poikilotherms to primates) and induces
type-specific neutralizing antibodies in exposed humans. Group antibody against
a pooled antigen of SMSV-5 and two other serotypes was also observed in 18% of
300 blood donors from a population in the northwestern United States. The human
calicivirus isolate designated SMSV-5 Homosapien-1 (SMSV-5 Hom-1) was recovered
from a laboratory worker with systemic illness, including vesicular lesions on
all four extremities. We believe this newly described human disease represents
a paradigmatic shift in calicivirus disease recognition.
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Caliciviral
infections in humans, among the most common causes of viral-induced vomiting
and diarrhea, are caused by the Norwalk group of small round structured
viruses, the Sapporo caliciviruses, and the hepatitis E agent. Human
caliciviruses have been resistant to in vitro cultivation, and direct study of
their origins and reservoirs outside infected humans or water and foods (such
as shellfish contaminated with human sewage) has been difficult. Modes of
transmission, other than direct fecal-oral routes, are not well understood. In
contrast, animal viruses found in ocean reservoirs, which make up a second
calicivirus group, can be cultivated in vitro. These viruses can emerge and
infect terrestrial hosts, including humans. This article reviews the history of
animal caliciviruses, their eventual recognition as zoonotic agents, and their
potential usefulness as a predictive model for noncultivatable human and other
animal caliciviruses (e.g., those seen in association with rabbit hemorrhagic
disease).
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A
phylogenetic portrait of the genus Calicivirus in the family Caliciviridae was
developed based upon published sequences and newly characterized calicivirus
(CV) strains, including additional Sapporo-like HuCV strains in pediatric
diarrhea stool specimens from South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United
States. Distance and parsimony methods were applied to nucleotide and amino
acid sequences of human and animal calicivirus 3D RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
(approximately 470nt) and capsid hypervariable regions (approximately 1,200nt)
to generate phylogenetic trees. Pairwise amino acid identity in the 3D region
among the Sapporo-like strains ranged from 61% to 100%. Human and animal
caliciviruses (HuCVs and AnCVs) separated into five genogroups: small round-structured
viruses (SRSV), Sapporo-like, and hepatitis E virus (HEV)-like HuCVs and
rabbit-, and vesicular exanthema of swine virus (VESV)-like AnCVs, each with a
distinct genome organization. Each genogroup, including the Sapporo-like HuCVs,
subdivided further into subgenogroups. The capsid region trees had higher
levels of confidence than the 3D region trees and limited conclusions about
genogroups could be drawn from the 3D region analyses. This analysis suggested
that CVs include five potential virus subfamilies.
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Caliciviruses
(CVs) include at least 42 distinct serotypes. Seventeen CV serotypes have been
isolated from marine sources and are called San Miguel sea lion caliciviruses
(SMSVs). CVs also have been isolated from reptiles, primates, and other
terrestrial animals. Nucleotide sequences from portions of genome of prototype
strains for six SMSV serotypes, the reptile CV, Cro-1, the cetacean CV, Tur-1,
and the primate CV, Pan-1, are presented. cDNA products of the polymerase (all
strains characterized) and capsid (SMSV-17) regions were produced by reverse
transcription-polymerase chain reaction using Pan-1 primers. Comparisons of
nucleotide and amino acid identity among these and published CV sequences
indicated that the nine characterized CVs fall into a phylogenetic group that
includes SMSV-1 and SMSV-4 and that is more closely related to other
characterized animal CVs than to most human CVs. The phylogenetic analysis also
indicated that distinct genera exist among the Caliciviridae. SMSV-17 and
SMSV-4 are predicted to be closer to each other than other caliciviruses of
known serotype; 574 (82%) of the 704 amino acids in the SMSV-17 and SMSV-4
capsid genes were identical.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9526548&dopt=Abstract
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Science 1996
Jul 5;273(5271):17-8
Comment on:
Science. 1996 Apr 12;272(5259):191-2
Release of RHD
virus in Australia.
Smith AW
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J
Wildl Dis 1996 Jul;32(3):461-7
Detection
of a non-cultivatable calicivirus from the white tern (Gygis alba rothschildi).
Poet
SE, Skilling DE, Megyesl JL, Gilmartin WG, Smith AW.
College
of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University Corvallis 97331, USA.
In
April 1992, on Tern Island, French Frigate Shoals, Hawaii (USA), researchers
observed a hand-reared white tern hatchling (Gygis alba rothschildi) develop
vesicular lesions on the webbing between its toes, 6 days after falling out of
its nest. Vesicular fluid collected from the foot lesions contained virus-like
particles having typical calicivirus morphology. Calicivirus RNA was detected
in the vesicular fluid by dot hybridization with a group-specific calicivirus
copy DNA probe. Attempts to cultivate the virus in African green monkey kidney
cells and porcine kidney cells were unsuccessful. This is the first report of a
calicivirus infection associated with vesicular disease in a wild avian
species.
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J
Mol Biol 1994 Jul 15;240(3):256-64
Three-dimensional
structure of calicivirus.
Prasad
BV, Matson DO, Smith AW.
Verna
and Marrs Mclean Department of Biochemistry, Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, TX 77030.
The
Caliciviridae comprise a new family of single-stranded RNA viruses. While human
caliciviruses cause gastroenteritis, the animal caliciviruses cause a wide
range of diseases. We have determined the three-dimensional structure of a
primate calicivirus using electron cryomicroscopy and computer image-processing
techniques. Calicivirus is one of the rare animal viruses whose capsid is made
of a single structural protein. The three-dimensional structure of the virus is
distinct from that of any other animal virus. However, there are several architectural
similarities with plant viruses such as tomato bushy stunt virus and turnip
crinkle virus. The calicivirions are 405 A in diameter and exhibit T = 3
icosahedral symmetry. The main features of the three-dimensional structure are
the 32 large surface hollows, 50 A deep and 90 A wide, at the icosahedral
5-fold and 3-fold axes, and the 90 distinctive arch-like capsomeres surrounding
these hollows at the local and strict 2-fold axes. Each capsomere is a dimer of
the capsid protein. Despite noticeable differences, the three quasi-equivalent
subunits show common structural features: the upper bilobed domain, the central
stem domain, and the lower shell domain. The 2-fold related capsid proteins
interact through the bilobed domains to form the top of the arch. The
structural differences between the connectors of the stem and the shell domain
among the three subunits suggest the presence of a hinge region that may
facilitate the capsid protein to adapt to the three quasi-equivalent
environments of the T = 3 icosahedral structure. The shell domains of the
pentavalent and hexavalent capsid proteins associate to form a continuous shell
between the radii of 115 and 150 A. A beta-barrel structure has been suggested
for the shell domain. The mass density in the inner shell between the radius of
85 and 110 A may contain a portion of the capsid protein interacting with the
RNA. The features between the 45 and 85 A radius are suggestive of ordered RNA.
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Am
J Vet Res 1990 Aug; 51(8):1184-7
New
marine calicivirus serotype infective for swine.
Berry
ES, Skilling DE, Barlough JE, Vedros NA, Gage LJ, Smith AW.
College
of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331.
A
new serotype of calicivirus was isolated from California sea lions (Zalophus
californianus) with severe vesicular disease. Neutralizing antibodies were
found in 27 of 82 (32.9%) serum samples from California sea lions and in 15 of
146 (10.3%) serum samples from Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) tested.
The seropositive animals were widely dispersed along the margins of the eastern
Pacific basin, from the Bering Sea to the Santa Barbara Channel. Seropositive
samples were found from as early as 1976 through the present time. This new
calicivirus serotype, San Miguel sea lion virus type 13, was inoculated into
weaned pigs, resulting in induction of severe vesicular disease, which spread
to all pigs, including uninoculated pen contacts. Virus was continually shed by
most of the pigs throughout the 2-week duration of the experiment.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2167030&dopt=Abstract
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J
Wildl Dis 1989 Jul;25(3):319-28
Mortality
of harbor seal pups at different sites in the inland waters of Washington.
Steiger
GH, Calambokidis J, Cubbage JC, Skilling DE, Smith AW, Gribble DH.
Cascadia
Research Collective, Olympia, Washington 98501
We
examined the mortality rates and causes of death of harbor seal (Phoca
vitulina) pups in three regions of the inland waters of Washington (USA) in
1984. One hundred eight pups were collected during 239 searches of the
shoreline areas near harbor seal haulout sites or through public reports.
Minimum neonatal (up to 1 mo after birth) mortality rates at these regions
ranged from 12% to 26% of the pups born. Neonatal mortality was highest in the
Strait of Juan de Fuca; 33 of the estimated 105 (31%) pups born at the primary
site died. Causes of death varied by location. In southern Puget Sound
predation by coyotes (Canis latrans) was the primary cause of death, accounting
for eight of 43 (19%) of the dead pups examined; starvation was the next most
common cause of death. Mortality at study sites in the Strait of Juan de Fuca
was related to premature parturition; 19 of 49 (39%) of the pups found dead
were born prematurely. Nine species of bacteria were identified in samples
taken from 42 pups; Proteus sp. and Escherichia coli were the most common.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2761005&dopt=Abstract
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Am J Vet Res 1988
Dec;49(12):2018-21
Immunogenicity,
pathogenicity, and transmissibility of a recombinant vaccinia virus in calves.
Wedman EE, Smith AW,
Oliver RE.
College of Veterinary
Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331-4802.
Experiments
concerned with the immunogenicity, pathogenicity, and transmissibility of a
recombinant vaccinia:Sindbis virus were conducted. The WR strain of the
recombinant vaccinia:Sindis virus was found to be infective for calves and
mildly pathogenic, resulting in local tissue reaction. It was not transmissible
to other calves. Also, it was found to be immunogenic when inoculated
intradermally into calves, and antibody was produced against the parent vector
virus (vaccinia) and the Sindbis antigen. Recombinant virus given IV to calves
induced no detectable clinical signs, nor did the calves develop neutralizing
antibodies. Furthermore, second-passage lesion material containing up to 10(7)
tissue culture infective doses of the recombinant virus failed to induce
development of lesions or illness in intradermally inoculated calves, and virus
could not be recovered from the inoculation sites. In this series of
experiments, this vaccinia recombinant given intradermally was immunogenic,
mildly pathogenic at the local injection site only, and was not transmissible
to contact animals, thus demonstrating the potential efficacy and safety of the
WR strain of vaccinia virus when used as a live vector system in cattle.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3239835&dopt=Abstract
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J
Wildl Dis 1987 Oct;23(4):534-8
First
isolation of a calicivirus from the Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus).
Skilling
DE, Barlough JE, Berry ES, Brown RF, Smith AW.
Calicivirus
Research Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University,
Corvallis 97331.
A
calicivirus was isolated from the rectum of a Steller sea lion (Eumetopias
jubatus) pup on Rogue Reef, off the southern Oregon coast. Based on the results
of neutralization tests with specific typing antisera, the isolate was
identified as San Miguel sea lion virus serotype 6 (SMSV-6). Blood obtained
from nine of 37 pups (24%) during virus sample collection procedures had
specific neutralizing antibodies to SMSV-6. The isolation of SMSV-6 from a
Steller sea lion represents, to our knowledge, the first isolation of any virus
from this widely distributed marine mammal species, and serves to reconfirm the
host-nonspecificity of yet another calicivirus of marine origin.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3682080&dopt=Abstract
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Neutralizing
antibodies to Tillamook calicivirus (TCV) were found in sera collected from
California sea lions (Zalophus c. californianus Lesson) in 1983 and 1984 and in
sera collected from Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus Schreber) in 1976 and
1985. The combined prevalence of antibodies for these two species was 10/228 =
4.38%. Titers ranged from 1:20 (five animals), to 1:40 (four animals), to 1:80
(one animal) by standard microtiter neutralization assay. The seropositive
pinnipeds were dispersed widely along the margins of the eastern Pacific rim,
from the Bering Sea to the Santa Barbara Channel. Antibodies to TCV were not
found in sera collected from northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus L.),
Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger), seals of the family
Phocidae, or several cetacean species. Tillamook calicivirus was isolated
originally in 1981 from dairy calves in Oregon; the finding of neutralizing
antibodies in two widely distributed species of sea lions suggests the
possibility of a marine origin for this agent.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3820428&dopt=Abstract
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J
Wildl Dis 1987 Jan;23(1):92-8
Serology
and virology of the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus L.).
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Benirschke K, Albert TF, Barlough JE.
Sera
from four bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus L.) were examined for the presence
of specific antibodies, and tissue and swab samples from six and four animals
respectively were processed for isolation of viruses and for initiation of
bowhead whale cell cultures. All sera were negative for antibodies to nine
serovars of Leptospira interrogans and to 21 orthomyxovirus subtypes and a
paramyxovirus (Newcastle disease virus). All sera were positive, however, for
neutralizing antibodies to one or more calicivirus serotypes. Two untyped
adenoviruses were isolated from colon samples of two different whales, but
neutralizing antibodies to the agents could not be demonstrated in any sera.
Three primary bowhead whale cell cultures were derived from kidney (two
cultures) and testis (one culture), from three individual whales.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3820430&dopt=Abstract
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J Wildl Dis 1987
Jan;23(1):34-44
Antibodies to marine
caliciviruses in the Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus Schreber).
Barlough JE, Berry ES, Goodwin
EA, Brown RF, DeLong RL, Smith AW.
Sera
from 145 Steller sea lions (76 adults, three subadults, 37 pups, and 29
fetuses) were tested for neutralizing antibodies to nine marine calicivirus
serotypes. Antibodies were found to San Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV) types 1,
5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 13, and to Tillamook (bovine) calicivirus, but no antibodies
were found to the walrus calicivirus. Titers (microtiter neutralization assay)
ranged from 1:20 to 1:320, with many positive reactions at the higher dilutions
(greater than or equal to 1:80). Antibodies to SMSV's 5 and 10 were most common
among animals sampled in Alaskan waters, while antibodies to SMSV-6 were most
common among pups from the southern Oregon coast. These data provide evidence
that Steller sea lions, like their California sea lion (Zalophus c.
californianus Lesson) counterparts, have experienced widespread exposure to
multiple serotypes of marine caliciviruses.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3820427&dopt=Abstract
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Compendium of
Continuing Education 1986; 8F5-F14
The marine calicivirus
story (part 1)
Barlough JE, Berry ES,
Skilling DE, Smith AW
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Compendium of Continuing
Education 1986; F75-F82
The marine calicivirus
story (part 2)
Barlough JE, Berry ES,
Skilling DE, Smith AW
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Avian/Exotic Practice
1986; 3:8-20
Sea lions,
caliciviruses, and the sea
Barlough JE, Berry ES,
Skilling DE, Smith AW
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Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms 1986; 2:73-80
Distribution in the
North Pacific Ocean, Bearing Sea, and Arctic Ocean of animal populations known
to carry a pathogenic calicivirus
Smith AW, Skilling DE,
Barlough JE, Berry ES
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Journal of Clinical Microbiology
1986; 9:217-220
A simple method for the
rapid preparation of virus isolates from cell culture material for electron
microscopy
Skilling DE, Barlough
JE, Berry ES, Smith AW
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Am J Vet Res 1986
Aug;47(8):1718-21
First isolation of
calicivirus from reptiles and amphibians.
Smith AW, Anderson MP,
Skilling DE, Barlough JE, Ensley PK.
Calicivirus
isolations were made from 4 poikilothermic species in a zoologic collection.
Viruses were recovered from 8 asymptomatic Aruba Island rattlesnakes (Crotalus
unicolor; rectal swab samples) and from 8 symptomatic animals (4 Aruba Island
rattlesnakes, 2 Bell's horned frogs [Ceratophrys orata], 1 rock rattlesnake [C
lepidus], and 1 eyelash viper [Bothrops schlegeli] tissue samples obtained at
necropsy). On the basis of cross-neutralization test results, the 16 isolates
were antigenically indistinguishable and were considered to represent a unique
calicivirus serotype, tentatively designated reptilian calicivirus Crotalus
type 1. These isolations could not be associated causally with any specific
disease entity either in naturally infected poikilotherms or in experimentally
infected snakes and pigs.
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J Wildl Dis 1986
Apr;22(2):165-8
Antibodies to marine
caliciviruses in the Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger).
Barlough JE, Berry ES,
Skilling DE, Smith AW, Fay FH.
Sera
from 155 Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger), sampled in the
Chukchi Sea during the summer of 1983, were tested for serum neutralizing (SN)
antibodies to six marine calicivirus serotypes. Serotypes tested included San
Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV) types 1, 5, 8, and 10, previously isolated from
northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus Linne) in the Bering Sea; walrus
calicivirus (WCV), previously isolated from walrus feces collected off sea ice
in the Chukchi Sea; and Tillamook calicivirus (TCV), a bovine isolate from
Oregon of suspected marine origin. No antibodies were found to SMSV-1, SMSV-10,
or TCV. Antibodies to SMSV-5 were found in two animals (titers 1:20 and 1:160);
antibodies to SMSV-8 were found in four animals (all 1:20); and antibodies to
WCV were found in one animal (titer 1:40). Antibodies to WCV have been found in
the Pacific walrus previously; however, this represents the first report of
antibodies to any of the SMSV serotypes in this marine mammal.
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Arch
Virol 1985;84(3-4):181-95
Characterization
of a new calicivirus isolated from feces of a dog.
Schaffer
FL, Soergel ME, Black JW, Skilling DE, Smith AW, Cubitt WD.
Canine
calicivirus (CaCV), isolated from feces of a dog with diarrhea, was readily
propagated in cultures of canine cells and in a dolphin cell line. Serologic
evidence indicated many dogs in at least one geographic area had been infected
with CaCV, but its role as an etiologic agent of disease was not established.
In cell culture most CaCV virions were strongly cell-associated making
purification difficult. CaCV was established as a member of the Caliciviridae
by morphology and physicochemical properties of virions (density, sedimentation
rate, single major polypeptide, RNA genome size), although some of the
properties differed slightly from those of previously described caliciviruses;
evidence was also obtained for caliciviral RNA species in infected cells. Based
on tests with antisera to numerous caliciviruses and presumed caliciviruses,
CaCV appeared to be not closely related to any previously described virus
except the stunting syndrome agent of chickens.
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J
Wildl Dis 1985 Oct;21(4):426-8
Isolation
of primate calicivirus Pan paniscus type 1 from a douc langur (Pygathrix
nemaeus l.).
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Anderson MP, Benirschke K.
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Am
J Vet Res 1985 Oct;46(10):2197-9
Calicivirus
isolation from three species of primates: an incidental finding.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Benirschke K.
Calicivirus
isolations were made from 3 species of subhuman primates. Viruses were
recovered from gingival lesions associated with periodontal disease in a spider
monkey, from the oropharynx of a healthy silver leaf langur, and from the spleen
of a lowland gorilla that had died of systemic coccidioidomycosis. Based on the
results of cross-neutralization tests, all 3 isolates were serologically
indistinguishable from a primate calicivirus Pan paniscus type 1. These
isolations appeared to be incidental in nature and could not be associated
causally with any specific disease entity.
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Res
Vet Sci 1985 Jul;39(1):113-5
Immunisation
of cattle with a recombinant togavirus-vaccinia virus strain.
Franke
CA, Berry ES, Smith AW, Hruby DE.
Genetic
engineering techniques have been used to construct a vaccinia virus recombinant
which contains and expresses togavirus (Sindbis) genetic information.
Intradermal inoculation of this recombinant strain into calves caused a
transient pock-type lesion at the site of inoculation and elicited the
production of substantial levels of anti-Sindbis virus neutralising antibodies.
These results suggest that recombinant vaccinia virus vaccines may have
potential for use in veterinary medicine.
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Am
J Vet Res 1985 Jan;46(1):218-20
Isolation
and identification of caliciviruses from dogs with enteric infections.
Evermann
JF, McKeirnan AJ, Smith AW, Skilling DE, Ott RL.
Caliciviruses
were isolated from 7 dogs and 1 captured coyote with enteritis. There was a
high fatality rate in dogs 4 to 16 weeks of age. The occurrence in these dogs
of concurrent infection with known enteric pathogens such as Salmonella sp,
canine parvovirus, canine coronavirus, and canine rotavirus did not allow
making any conclusions regarding the pathogenicity of this newly recognized
calicivirus. The caliciviruses were characterized by electron microscopy and
were further identified as being closely related to feline calicivirus by
immunoelectron microscopy with specific antibody.
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Arch
Virol 1983;76(3):257-61
Ultrastructure
of newly recognized caliciviruses of the dog and mink.
Evermann
JF, Smith AW, Skilling DE, McKeirnan AJ.
Two
recently recognized viruses obtained from a dog with glossitis and from mink
with hemorrhagic pneumonia were characterized by electron microscopy. The
results of the negative-stained preparations indicated that the viruses were
structurally compatible with the calicivirus group.
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J
Am Vet Med Assoc 1983 Dec 1;183(11):1223-5
Calicivirus-induced
vesicular disease in cetaceans and probable interspecies transmission.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Ridgway S.
A
calicivirus isolated from cetaceans is a new serotype designated cetacean
calicivirus Tursiops-1 (CCV-Tur-1). It appears to have spread from an initially
infected Atlantic bottlenose dolphin to a California sea lion, and was then
carried by the sea lion to a second facility several miles away, where a second
dolphin became infected and developed vesicular skin lesions that eroded,
leaving shallow ulcers. Cetaceans and pinnipeds belong to separate orders, so
this finding of interspecies transmission demonstrates the potentially broad
host spectrum for yet another calicivirus.
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J
Am Vet Med Assoc 1983 Dec 1;183(11):1219-22
Regression
of cetacean tattoo lesions concurrent with conversion of precipitin antibody
against a poxvirus.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Ridgway SH, Fenner CA.
Tattoo
lesions linked to the cetacean poxvirus of bottlenose dolphins regressed
without treatment. Two types of regression were observed: (1) The tattoo
lesions became raised and blanched, then disappeared along with sloughing skin.
(2) When an incision was made through a tattoo lesion, the tattoo disappeared
in a zone around the incision. Poxviruses removed from the raised, blanched skin
lesions and from typical tattoo lesions were reacted with dolphin serums and
examined by immunoelectron microscopy. Antibody was not detected against either
of these poxvirus preparations when the dolphins had only typical tattoo
lesions. However, after the raised, blanched lesions appeared, serums obtained
during the acute or convalescent stages were positive for the poxvirus
separated from the lesions. Regression of the typical tattoo lesions was
concurrent with antibody conversion.
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Science
1983 Jul 1;221(4605):79-81
Calicivirus
isolation and persistence in a pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus).
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Ensley PK, Benirschke K, Lester TL.
What
may be the first calicivirus isolate from any primate species, including man,
was recovered from a herpesvirus-like lip lesion on a pygmy chimpanzee and
then, 6 months later, from the throat of the same animal. The infected
individual and its cage mates had circulating antibodies that were
type-specific for this calicivirus. The agent was antigenically different from
30 other calicivirus serotypes and is tentatively designated primate
calicivirus Pan paniscus type 1 (PCV-Pan 1).
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Am
J Vet Res 1983 May;44(5):851-5
Isolation
and partial characterization of a calicivirus from calves.
Smith
AW, Mattson DE, Skilling DE, Schmitz JA.
A
calicivirus was isolated from 3 dairy calves in a herd with persistent calf
respiratory tract problems. This virus, named Tillamook calicivirus, was not
neutralized by 18 different calicivirus-typing serums available. The agent
caused only minimal lesions in 2 experimentally exposed calves, but did
establish a persistent infection with virus shedding for 45 days, after which
time the experiment was terminated. Experimentally exposed swine developed
clinical vesicular lesions. The possible origins, disease potential, and
relationships to the exotic animal disease agent, vesicular exanthema of swine
are discussed for this first calicivirus isolate of bovine origin.
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J
Wildl Dis 1983 Apr;19(2):86-9
New
calicivirus isolates from feces of walrus (Odobenus rosmarus).
Smith
AW, Ritter DG, Ray GC, Skilling DE, Wartzok D.
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Arch
Virol 1981;67(2):165-8
Calcivirus
(SMSV-5) infection in experimentally inoculated Opaleye fish (Girella
nigricans).
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Prato CM, Bray HL.
At
15 degrees C, San Miguel sea lion virus infected fish (Girella nigricans),
producing 10(7).6 TCID50 per gram of spleen, replicated in Vero cells (10(8)
TCID50/gm) and retained viability after 14 days exposure to salt water (10(5)
TCID50/ml dropped to 10(2).
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Am
J Vet Res 1981 Apr;42(4):693-4
Isolation
and identification of five new serotypes of calicivirus from marine mammals.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Latham AB.
Five
new serotypes of calicivirus have been isolated from marine mammals. San Miguel
sea lion virus (SMSV)-8 and SMSV-10 were recovered from vesicular lesions on the
flippers of northern fur seals in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska. Serotype
SMSV-9 was isolated from a sea lion in southern California, and SMSV-11 was
isolated from 2 northern fur seal pups in southern California. Serotype SMSV-12
was also isolated in southern California from sea lion and fur seal pups.
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Intervirology
1980;14(1):1-6
Caliciviridae.
Schaffer
FL, Bachrach HL, Brown F, Gillespie JH, Burroughs JN, Madin SH, Madeley CR, Povey
RC, Scott F, Smith AW, Studdert MJ.
The
caliciviruses, as a proposed family Caliciviridae, have a distinct virion
morphology with cup-shaped depressions on a spherical capsid surface. The
viruses have single-stranded RNA, which has a molecular weight about 2.6 x
10(6) and is infectious. The RNA is covalently linked to a small protein. A
single major polypeptide is found in the capsid. A subgenomic RNA, molecular
weight about 1 x 10(6), coding for the capsid polypeptide is found in infected
cells. Caliciviruses infecting swine, pinnipeds and cats have been
characterized. Viruses which are morphologically identical to the known
caliciviruses have been identified in human feces; these viruses have been
shown to be associated with gastroenteritis, but they have not yet been
propagated in the laboratory.
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Am
J Vet Res 1980 Nov;41(11):1846-50
Preliminary
investigation of a possible lung worm (Parafilaroides decorus), fish (Girella nigricans),
and marine mammal (Callorhinus ursinus) cycle for San Miguel sea lion virus
type 5.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Brown RJ.
Colostrum-deprived
neonatal Northern fur seal pups (Callorhinus ursinus) were exposed to San Miguel
sea lion virus type 5 (SMSV-5) by feeding them fish (Girella nigricans)
infected with virus or fish infected with both the sea lion lung worm larvae
(Parafilaroides decorus) and virus. Virus infection was demonstrated in 8 of 9
pups, and 1 of these developed a vesicular lesion on the flipper. In this
sequence, P decorus larvae exposed to SMSV-5 were fed to G nigricans held at 15
C in a salt water aquarium; 32 days later, these fish were killed, then fed to
the fur seal pups. The vesicle developed 22 days subsequent to this and SMSV-5
was reisolated from the lesion. The SMSV-5 was shown to persist for at least 23
days in infected neonatal fur seals. Attempts to establish P decorus infection
in Northern fur seal pups were apparently unsuccessful.
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Science
1980 Aug 22;209(4459):940-1
Calicivirus
pathogenic for swine: a new serotype isolated from opaleye Girella nigricans,
an
ocean fish.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Dardiri AH, Latham AB.
A
new calicivirus, designated San Miguel sea lion virus type 7 (SMSV-7), was
isolated from fish and produced a disease condition identical to vesicular
exanthema in experimentally infected swine. Serotype SMSV-7 was also isolated
from four elephant seals and one sea lion trematode, whereas a second
calicivirus serotype isolated from fish proved to be SMSV-6.
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J Wildl Dis
1980 Apr;16(2):261-6
Metastatic
adenocarcinoma in two California sea lions, Zalophus c. californianus.
Brown RJ,
Smith AW, Morejohn GV, DeLong RL.
Two California sea lions (Zalophus californianus
californianus) came to necropsy with morphologically identical metastatic
tumors. These were glandular epithelial origin and were widespread throughout
the visceral organs. Both animals were found beached and dead within two months
and were only 220 km apart.
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Arch
Virol 1979;61(3):255-9
A
new calicivirus isolated from a marine mammal.
Smith
AW, Akers TG, Latham AB, Skilling DE, Bray HL.
A
new serotype of calicivirus, designated as San Miguel sea lion virus type 6
(SMSV-6), was isolated from vesicular lesions on the flipper of a California sea
lion pup. Serologic studies show that SMSV-6 neutralizing antibodies (SN) occur
frequently among California sea lions and occasionally among northern fur
seals. Feral swine, 1- to 6-week elephant seal pups and grey whales tested
negative for SMSV-6 antibody.
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J
Am Vet Med Assoc 1979 Nov 1;175(9):918-20
Viruses
and virus diseases of marine mammals.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE.
Poxvirus
and several serotypes of calicivirus cause recognizable disease in marine
mammals. Pox lesions in pinnipeds are raised and proliferative and are seen
most frequently after confinement in captivity. In cetaceans, a poxvirus is
associated with a much more benign and chronic lesion called a "tattoo."
Numerous caliciviruses of differing antigenic types have been isolated from
vesicular lesions and aborted fetuses of northern fur seals and California sea
lions as well as from clinically normal and orphaned northern elephant seal
pups. An adenovirus has been isolated from a sei whale and an enterovirus has
been isolated from a gray whale.
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J
Am Vet Med Assoc 1978 Nov 1;173(9):1131-3
Hazards
of disease transfer from marine mammals to land mammals: review and recent
findings.
Smith
AW, Vedros NA, Akers TG, Gilmartin WG.
In
a 5-year study (1972-1977) of microbial agents isolated from both clinically
normal and diseased marine mammals, it was shown that certain disease agents
are widespread in a diversity of ocean populations and that some are also
transmissible to a number of terrestrial mammal species. Leptospira interrogans
serovar pomona has been isolated repeatedly from 2 species of pinnipeds
(Zalophus californianus califonianus and Callorhinus ursinus). Some of the more
important bacterial pathogens for land mammals that were isolated from wild
marine mammals are Pseudomonas mallei, Clostridium chauvoei, C novyi, Neisseria
mucosa var heidelbergensis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella spp, and Pasteurella
multocida. Numerous serotypes of viruses classified as caliciviruses were
isolated from a variety of marine mammals. Some of these are known to infect
several land mammal species including swine horses, and primates. For this
reason., precautions should be taken to ensure that disease agents shed by
captive marine mammals are not transmitted to susceptible terrestrial mammals,
including animal handlers and other human beings.
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Am
J Vet Res 1978 Sep;39(9):1531-3
Immunoelectron
microscopic comparisons of caliciviruses.
Smith
AW, Skilling DE, Ritchie AE.
Using
immunoelectron microscopy, 9 serotypes of vesicular exanthema of swine virus
(VESV) were compared with 5 serotypes of San Miguel sea lion virus and 7
additional calicivirus isolates from marine animals. In addition, swine
caliciviruses and marine caliciviruses were compared with the vaccinal strain
of feline calicivirus (FCV) F-9. Of 9 VESV types, 8 showed common antigenicity
with San Miguel sea lion virus. Of 9 VESV types, 2 showed common antigenicity
with FCV F-9. All 12 marine caliciviruses showed common antigenicity with VESV,
but not with FCV F-9
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Am
J Vet Res 1978 Feb;39(2):291-6
Prevalence
of vesicular exanthema of swine antibodies among feral mammals associated with
the southern California coastal zones.
Smith
AW, Latham AB.
Serum-neutralizing
antibodies to both vesicular exanthema of swine virus (VESV) and San Miguel sea
lion virus (SMSV) were found in a number of animal species having an
association with the southern California coastal zones. California sea lions
(Zalophus californianus) had antibodies to 9 VESV types (A48, C52, D53, E54,
F54, G55, I55, J56, and K56). Fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) and elephant seal
pups (Mirounga angustirostris) were tested for antibodies to 6 VESV types and
all were negative. California gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) were tested
for antibodies to 9 VESV types, and sperm whale (Physeter catodon), finback
whale (Balaenoptera physalus), and sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) were
tested for 6 VESV types. Among the last 4 species, antibodies were present for
each VESV type except C52, and all species were positive for antibodies to 2 or
more VESV types. Feral swine from both Santa Cruz Island and Santa Catalina
Island were tested and antibodies were present for 8 of 9 VESV types and all
SMSV types except SMSV-4. One donkey from San Miguel Island was positive for
VESV I55 and 2 were positive for SMSV-2.
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Am
J Vet Res 1978 Feb;39(2):287-9
Caliciviruses
infecting monkeys and possibly man.
Smith
AW, Prato C, Skilling DE.
Caliciviruses
have, for the 1st time, been shown experimentally to infect a primate.
Twenty-four hours after being inoculated with San Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV),
an African green monkey developed a febrile response and vesicular lesions at
injection sites. Virus was recovered from lesion material 96 hours later and
from the stool at 48 hours. Possible human infection with SMSV was indicated by
serologic evidence. Three persons working with 4 distinct serotypes of SMSV
developed neutralizing antibody titers to 2 SMSV types. The positive
serum-neutralization test results were confirmed, using immunoelectron
microscopy to demonstrate complexes of viruses and antibodies.
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Journal of Wildlife
Diseases 1977;13:448-450
Calicivirus antibodies
in wild fox populations
Prato CM, Ackers TG,
Smith AW,
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Microbios Letters
1977;4:17-21
Premature Births in
California sea lions: An overview
Smith AW, Skilling DE.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Intervirology
1977;8(1):30-6
Characterization
of two new serotypes of San Miguel sea lion virus.
Smith
AW, Prato CM, Skilling DE.
Two
new virus isolates, one from a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus
californianus) and the other from a northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus)
were partially characterized. Their physicochemical characteristics were
similar to those of vesicular exanthema of swine virus (VESV) and San Miguel
sea lion virus (SMSV). The virion morphology was in both instances typically
calicivirus. On the basis of this and the serum cross-neutralization testing,
these isolates were classed as two new types of SMSV and were designated
serotypes SMSV-4 and SMSV-5.
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J
Wildl Dis 1977 Apr;13(2):144-8
Naturally-occurring
leptospirosis in northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus).
Smith
AW, Brown RJ, Skilling DE, Bray HL, Keyes MC.
A
4-year study of Northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) leptospirosis in the
Bering Sea has shown that in newborn pups Leptospira pomona is associated with
a multiple hemorrhage syndrome. Adults may develop an interstitial nephritis
and shed organisms in the urine. The hed prevalence, based on microscopic slide
agglutination tests, ranged between 7.0% and 15.4% for adult females and 3-4
year old bachelor bulls, whereas nursing pups averaging 4 months of age had a
prevalence of 2%. These results are used to conclude that leptospirosis is not
acquired primarily on the breeding rookeries but rather is more frequently
acquired subsequent to the purps leaving the rookeries, presumably through the
food chain during their first pelagic cycle.